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EA - Volume 63 - Issue 3

[<<< GO BACK ][ VOLUME 63 - ISSUE 3 ]

Title: Contents Vol. 63, No. 3, September 2018
Abstract :
Title: Production and Marketing Analysis of Knol-khol under Sub-Tropical Conditions of Jammu Region: A case study
Abstract :
The numbers of small farms are increasing over time mainly due to division and subdivision and sale and resale of farms. These small farms are inefficient for growing crops such as wheat, cotton, sugarcane and rice, since a lot of money resource is prerequisite for growing these crops. With such circumstances, crops that are short duration and fetch high returns are suitable for such farms. Such crops are vegetables that not only give high returns but they are also a cheap source of essential nutrients. The present study has analysed the cost and return analysis as well as technical efficiency of knol-khol producing farms of Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir state. Three districts Jammu, Udhampur and Samba are selected for the said study. DEA (Data Envelopment Analysis) have been used for the estimating the technical efficiency. Farmers in the study area used purchased as well as home produced inputs. The costs of home produced inputs were calculated in monetary terms on the basis of opportunity cost principle i.e., the market price. The cost of cultivation is found to be ` 7796.65 /acre (overall) with ` 7743.27/acre for Bhalwal block and ` 7850.02/acre for Marh block for Jammu district, in Samba district, the overall average was ` 6855.57/acre with ` 6416.38/acre for Vijaypur block and ` 7294.76 for Samba block and it was ` 7999.68/acre (overall average), ` 8166.21/acre (Udhampur block) and ` 7833.15/acre (Chenani block) in Udhampur district. The gross returns were ` 25250.00/acre, ` 31500.00/acre, ` 27720.00/acre, ` 34560.00/acre, ` 27000.00/acre and ` 36300.00/acre for Bhalwal, Marh, Vijaypur, Samba, Udhampur and Chenani blocks whereas the overall average for Jammu, Samba and Udhampur districts were ` 28325.00/acre,
` 31050.00/acre and ` 31500.00/acre, respectively.
Title: Economic Efficiency of Input Use in Peach Cultivation in North Western Himalayas
Abstract :

Peach is the most important stone fruit in temperate and sub-tropical areas. Among the stone fruits, peach crop accounts for 49.54 per cent in area and 60.82 per cent production in Himachal Pradesh. A sample of 60 farmers cultivating peach was selected using multistage simple random sampling. Results of the study revealed that literacy rate in the study area were worked out to 82.57 per cent with literacy index of 2.23 indicating low quality of education. Average operational area was found 1.26 ha, out of which orchard area was 0.83 ha and peach plantation accounts for 52.38 per cent. The cultivation of peach component was also seem to be quite important; with its contribution to total household income was 45.54 per cent. It has been observed that fertilizer, FYM and Labour were significantly affecting the production but plant protection chemical was not found significant. It has been observed that Fertilizer, FYM, Plant Protection Chemicals and Labour were found to be significantly under-utilized resources and increase the use of these inputs will increase production. The findings of the study strongly recommend the optimum use of the resources in order to attain desired growth in peach cultivation and ultimately the productivity.

Title: Productivity and Resource Use Efficiency in Wheat: A Stochastic Production Frontier Approach
Abstract :

Farm level technical efficiency and its determinants in wheat production in the state of Bihar has been studied using stochastic frontier production function model. The average productivity of wheat was reported 28.43 q/ha which was below the national average of 30.33 q/ha during 2016-17. The resource inputs were found inelastic and not being properly utilized. All the resource inputs were found positive and significant at 1 per cent and 5 per cent level of probability except machine labour used which was negatively significant, indicating overuse of machine labour or costly machine labour. The mean input efficiency in production of wheat in the state was estimated to be 94 per cent, emphasizing that efficiency may be enhanced by 6 per cent. The factors influencing efficiency were identified as education, family size and landholding size. The mean technical efficiency was found to be 0.94 indicted that optimal and sustainable use of resource inputs may further raise the input use efficiency in wheat production by 6 per cent and consequently boost up the income of the wheat cultivators in the state.

Title: Cost and Return Analysis of Kinnow Mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) with the Foliar Application of Potassium and Plant Growth Regulators
Abstract :
Kinnow mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) belongs to family Rutaceae. In India, Kinnow is being grown in Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. To evaluate the most profitable treatment, economic analysis of treatments was worked out in terms of net return and Cost benefit ratio (C: B) ratio. The cost incurred on basin preparation per tree (` 40), Cost of FYM per tree (` 60), Cost of Urea per tree (` 3), Cost of DAP per tree (` 12.60), Cost of MOP per tree (` 30) and
miscellaneous charges (Irrigation, plant protection measures, harvesting of fruits etc.) per tree (` 150) was found to be same in all the treatments. The cost incurred on the preparation of different solutions of potassium nitrate (KNO3) in various treatments was found to be ` 18.60 for 3.0 % KNO3 per tree followed by ` 12.40 for 2.0 % KNO3 and ` 6.20 for 1.0 % KNO3 and in preparation of different solutions of potassium sulphate (K2SO4) it was found to be ` 9.90 for 1.5 % K2SO4 per tree followed by ` 6.60 for 1.0 % K2SO4 and ` 3.30 for 0.5 % K2SO4. In case of preparation of ethrel in different treatments was found to be ` 6.75 for 450 ppm ethrel followed by ` 4.50 for 300 ppm ethrel and ` 2.25 for 150 ppm ethrel and the cost incurred for preparation of 75 ppm GA3 was found to be ` 22.60. It was found that 75 ppm GA3 treatment was best and showed highest net returns per tree ` 916.35. Thus, Kinnow mandarin trees treated with GA3 75 ppm was found to be best treatment combination as evidenced by cost: benefit ratio of 1: 3.88.
Title: Economic Resources among the Urban Oldest-Old Females: Anthropological Study in Midnapore Municipal Town, West Bengal
Abstract :

Ageing is a natural fact in a life where social, cultural, economic and health issues attached to study of aging. The oldest old or Super Senior Citizen subpopulation in India is growing much faster than any other age group and due to their physical incapability they fall in peril situation which make them more dependent on others for their needs of financial support, medical assistance and social services etc. However, anthropological perspective on aging study is based on evolution of human aging as well as working incapability, economic dependency, sources of income and others. Therefore, authors of the present paper aim to highlight economic resources of the oldest-old female residing in different wards under Midnapore Municipal town of Paschim Medinipur district, West Bengal, India. The areas, which were explored, include some basic economic features such as different sources of financial support, sources of pension and amount of pension which deals with the economic resources of the Oldest Old. For the present paper data has been collected from about 500 oldest old female populations (using systematic random sampling table) living in urban areas of Medinipur Municipal Town. Therefore, the finding presented in this paper is that, the oldest old female under study area are seriously in economic disadvantageous position in many respects, which may be illustrated with the following facts: economically more dependent; most of them are non-worker; a very good number of them do not get/receive any pension from any sources.

Title: Economics of Production of Ginger in Wayanad District of Kerala, India
Abstract :

The present study was aimed to find out the input use levels and economics of ginger cultivation in Wayanad district of Kerala, during the crop year 2015-16. Total four villages which are leading in the area of ginger cultivation were selected and twenty farmers from each village i.e. total 80 farmers were chosen randomly as sample size. The study indicated that cost of cultivation and gross returns were positively related with size of the holding. The overall cost of cultivation was ` 4, 54,991.62 and ` 4, 94,501.03 per hectare on small and large farms. The expenditure on seed was found to be maximum constituting about 35.01 per cent of total cost followed by human labour, and machine power. All the farm income measures exhibited a positive relationship with the farm size. Returns per rupee of expenditure were found to be ` 0.60 and 0.67 per hectare on small and large farms respectively

Title: Sustainable Agroforestry Systems for Livelihood Security and their Economic Appraisal in Indian Himalayas
Abstract :

Sustainable indigenous agroforestry systems are mainstay of rural agrarian economy coupled with livestock rearing in mountains of Himalayas. A 2B4D6-watershed was selected in Central Himalayas to investigate economic returns from agriculture based agroforestry systems. A detailed structured analysis revealed four types of agriculture based agroforestry systems are prevalent in the 2B4D6-watershed of Indian Central Himalaya. These agroforestry systems are profitable to farmers and can obtain more than two-fold returns from agriculture based agroforestry systems. The net return from these systems decreased in the order: Agrihorticulture > Agrihortisilviculture > Agrisilvihorticulture > Agrisilviculture. The highest benefit cost ratio from agroforestry systems was obtained at higher elevation E5 and it decreased with decrease in elevations in the order: E4 > E3 > E2 > E1. Thus, we conclude that agroforestry systems are not only sustainable but also are imperative for livelihood security of local inhabitants of Indian Central Himalayas.

Title: Fruit and Vegetable Processing Sector in Bengal: Opportunities, Status and Challenges
Abstract :

Fruit and vegetable processing sector is one of the core segments under food processing in Bengal. Development of this sector is critically important to the expansion and diversification of state’s agricultural sector. It provides vital linkages and harnesses synergies between the two pillars of our economy, industry and agriculture. Bengal has huge potentials for the growth of this sector in the state. But such growth potentials are constrained by several factors. The processing of fruit and vegetable is still at a very low level in Bengal (2.8 per cent) as well as in India (2.2 per cent) against the highest post harvest losses (27 per cent). The main constraint lies behind this with infrastructure, technology, quality measurement and lack of farm-firm linkages. In view of the above facts this paper tries to examine the streangths of this particular sector in the state and highlighting on its existing constraints. The paper also made suggestions to achieve the future progress of this sector in Bengal.

Title: Impact of Climate Resilient Practices under NICRA Project in Ri Bhoi District of Meghalaya
Abstract :

The present study was conducted to identify the technological and socio-economic impact of the climate resilient technologies demonstrated at National Innovation for Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) Kyrdem village at Ri Bhoi district of Meghalaya. To assess the impact, the ex-post-facto research design, where before and after comparisons on different aspects of NICRA project were done. The statistical tools like chi square and Cramer’s V were applied for analysis of the collected information for jalkund and vermicompost to draw the meaningful and logical conclusions. Findings reveal that the average cultivable land area and productive parameters for crops and livestocks of NICRA farmers after the project interventions was significantly higher than that of before the implementation of the interventions all through in kharif and rabi seasons. Findings of cropping intensity, annual savings, expenditure pattern and crop yield were significantly higher in comparison to before implementation of the intervention. Findings of the study exhibited an encouraging impact of the demonstrated technologies in various spheres of farmer’s life of NICRA village.

Title: Growth and Instability Analysis of Cauliflower Crop in Punjab
Abstract :

The present study was conducted to show the statistical investigation of growth and instability in area, production and productivity of cauliflower in Punjab. The study was based on the data collected from the secondary sources like www.indiastat.com. The results revealed that area as well as production of cauliflower in Punjab and India had increased over the last 27 years but the yield of the crop was found to be decreased over the year in Punjab while in India it had increased over the year. The instability index of productivity was very low and stable in Punjab as compared to the whole over India. This was happening due to higher amount of assured irrigation facilities available in Punjab. Proper concentration should be paid on the improvement on production as well as marketing also.

Title: An Analysis of Problems and Constraints Faced by Farmers in Marketing of Agricultural Produce in Punjab
Abstract :

Agriculture as an economic activity is subjected to serious risk of natural conditions and price risk. Some of the important constraints of agricultural marketing system in the country are lack of infrastructure like storage, transportation, quality control, packaging, price risk management, cool chains, market led extension, and condusive framework for promotion of contract farming. The present study was undertaken in the state of Punjab to study the problems of farmers in the marketing of paddy, wheat, maize and cotton. A total sample of 180 farmers from 12 villages of six districts was selected for the study. The sample farmers were further categorized, based on their operational holding, as marginal, small, semi-medium, medium and large farmers. The results from the study indicated that the most important problem identified by the farmers in the marketing of paddy and wheat was the delay in procurement of paddy in the markets followed by the deduction of payments by commission agents due to higher moisture content in the grains. However, the major problem during marketing of basmati was the exploitative practices by the intermediaries followed by lack of public procurement. The problem faced by majority of farmers in the marketing of maize and cotton was the lack of public procurement of the produce and lack of remunerative price of the crop respectively

Title: Economic Evaluation of Poplar based Agro-forestry System in Punjab
Abstract :

The present study was conducted in Punjab to examine the financial viability of poplar based agro-forestry system. The data were collected for the year 2015-16. The total sample of 70 farmers was selected which grew poplar as block plantation. BC ratio, NPV and annuity value were estimated. Two types of agro-forestry systems AFS-1 (wheat + khariff fodder during first four years) and AFS-2 (sugarcane for first two years and wheat during 3-4 years) were identified. AFS-2 (NPV ` 164998/acre) gave marginally higher returns than AFS-1 (` 155489/acre) at 12% discount rate at fourth year of harvesting. The study revealed that net returns from poplar cultivation were at par with pure cropping system as the returns from paddy-wheat rotation were ` 46833/acre in 2015-16.

Title: Futures Markets and Farmers Welfare: Are They in Sync?
Abstract :

Commodity derivative markets, are expected to be alternative markets to physical or spot markets where producers including farmers will be able to foresee market prices of the commodities they are about to produce much in advance of the actual production takes place. The recently introduced commodity options trading instruments are expected to provide a further boost to the hedging and risk management capabilities of commodity derivative markets in India, as option contracts, unlike futures contracts, work on the criteria of unlimited gains with limited losses opportunity. Nevertheless, the risks associated with primary agricultural production are long-term in nature and the current system of commodity derivatives trading instruments available in India needs an improvement to address these long-term aspects so that farmers will be able to take advantage of the system.

Title: Assets Creation and Employment Generation under Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: A Study of Kalaburagi District in Karnataka
Abstract :

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is not exclusively intended to provide employment in rural areas. Its objective of employment guarantee is linked with the creation of durable and sustainable assets. With this, MGNREGA has long run objective to enhance livelihood security of rural households. To achieve this, list of permissible works are clearly stipulated in the Act itself. So far, MGNREGA has successfully completed over a decade of journey in the countryside. In this long voyage, it is quite important to understand how far MGNREGA has become successful in creating sustainable assets through employment generation. The unevenness of economic development across the regions, MGNREGA implementation may not be same. So demand for employment varies across the regions. As result, employment generation and assets creation obviously differ from region to region. In addition, its performance depends upon financial resources, administrative mechanism, planning, monitoring and supervision, etc. In general, need for MGNREGA arises mostly in drought-prone, unirrigated and rain-fed rural areas. The present study attempts to explain the relation between employment generation and assets creation in drought-affected regions. For this study, Kalaburagi region of Karnataka is chosen where droughts occur frequently. Under MGNREGA, employment generation is relatively high in Kalaburagi when compared with state and national level. Work completion rate was increased from 44 percent to 79 percent for first three years and declined drastically thereafter. This work completion is relatively better in the works like rural connectivity, water conservation and rural sanitation. During 2006-17, just 13 percent of works were completed out of total undertaken works. The correlation between employment generation and work completion rate is too weak. From a decade of MGNREGA implementation, assets creation remained to be unsatisfactory.

Title: An Economic Analysis of Onion Cultivation in Giridih District of Jharkhand
Abstract :

The study was carried out in Giridih district of Jharkhand with the objectives to work out the cost and return structure of onion cultivation and to identify the major constraints confronted by the farmers in onion cultivation. For the selection of respondent’s multistage sampling design was employed. Primary data was collected from sample of 120 onion growing farmers. The data so collected pertained to the Rabi season of the agricultural year 2016-17. The study concluded that, the average cost of cultivation of onion in Dhanwar block was ` 57687.95 per acreage which was higher than ` 50374.3 in case of Birni. The total variable cost per acre in Dhanwar was ` 45325.16 and in Birni it was ` 41691.40. The output per acre in Dhanwar was 65.52 quintal and in Birni it was 46.00 quintal/acre. The return per rupee investment was around ` 1.71 and ` 1.34 over variable and total cost respectively in case of Dhanwar block. In Birni block it was ` 1.65 over variable cost and ` 1.37over fixed cost. The major problems in cultivation of onion were lack of water for irrigation, high cost of seeds, pest and diseases, awareness on optimum use of fertilizers, high cost of labour etc.

Title: Comparing Performance of Various Crops in Rajasthan state based on Market Price, Economic Prices and Natural Resource Valuation
Abstract :
The study has assessed the performance of different crops and cropping pattern in the state of Rajasthan using alternative price scenarios like market prices; economic prices (net out effect of subsidy) and natural resource valuation (NRV) considering environmental benefits like biological nitrogen fixation and greenhouse gas costs. The study has used unit-level cost of cultivation data for the triennium ending 2013-14 which were collected from Cost of Cultivation Scheme, MPUAT, Udaipur (Raj.) for the present study. It has analyzed crop-wise use of fertilizers, groundwater, surface water and subsidies. The secondary data of cropping pattern was also used from 1991-95 to 2011-14 from various published sources of Government of Rajasthan. The study that even after netting out the input subsidies and effect on environment and natural resources, the cotton-vegetables cropping pattern was found more stable and efficient because of the higher net return of ` 102463 per hectare with the next best alternate cropping patterns like clusterbean-chillies (` 86934/ha), cotton-wheat (` 69712/ha), clusterbean-wheat (` 64987/ ha) etc. under the set of marketing infrastructure, minimum support prices, agricultural technological know-how, climatic conditions in the various zones, available irrigation facilities. The study has pointed out that the grower farmers may not move towards the diversification until incentivized by economically attractive alternate cropping patterns.
Title: Use of Electronic Payment Instruments and Effect on Cash Management: A Micro Analysis
Abstract :

The emergence of innovative electronic payment modes in the financial sector has changed the payment dynamics of transactions across countries. The two important modes of card payments offered by the commercial banks are the debit and credit cards in India. This study is an attempt to examine at the micro level the Baumol Tobin model of demand for money in light of the adoption of electronic payment instruments via debit and credit cards among the select households of Coimbatore City for 2017. The estimated results revealed that from across the range of transactions, more than 50 per cent of the respondents chose the mode of cash payment for values lesser than ` 10,000. This indicated that cash was preferred more in the case of low-value transactions. Garrett’s Ranking technique was used to find the impact of usage of debit and credit cards on the financial parameters of the respondents. The results showed that among the respondents usage of debit and credit cards had the highest impact on the “level of indebtedness”, which indicated that the usage of cards for retail purchases substituted cash significantly.

Title: Labour Employment and Income Generation from Agro-forestry System in U.S. Nagar District of Uttarakhand, India
Abstract :

The paper has examined the labour employment generation of the prevailing agro-forestry system. Two block of Udham Singh Nagar was selected for study purpose in which two spacing was followed by sample farmers i.e. 7m×3m and 5m×4m. Study was conducted by taking in to labour engaged in the Agro forestry System. Aggregate measures were used to determine the labour employed in agro-forestry system in different years of plantation. The result indicated that Agro-forestry with spacing 7m×3m require less labour to be employed in comparison to spacing 5m×4m. The result of study has suggested that policy support in terms promotion is to provide some incentive to agro-forestry farmers.

Title: Fiscal Tribal Dilemma: Imbalance in Protectionism and Optimum Resources Utilization Policies in North Eastern States of India
Abstract :
The paper is an attempt to assess the fiscal performance of eight north eastern states of India over a period of sixteen years (2000 – 2016). The paper constructs a composite index to measure the level of fiscal performance across the states based on their indices where each index is constructed based upon three fiscal related variables. Based on the composite fiscal performance index the study observes that the fiscal performance of most of the NE states is inconsistent and deteriorating over the years due to increasing deficit burden, poor own revenue capacity and high expenditure-debt serving ratio. The peculiar situation in the North Eastern states and the inherent restrictions implies that these states are faced with hurdles in the implementation of policies. NE states are favored states, getting large tax preferences, exempted from paying direct taxes; enjoy a number of subsidies, have rigid/undefined property rights regime, which hinders the identification of the potential of the economy. We believe that it is not protectionist policies rather it is the failure to harmonize protectionism with policies geared towards efficient resources management policies that undermines the fiscal health of the states, resulting in depressed developmental outcomes. Therefore, the institutional arrangement which vitiates fiscal health of the North Eastern states and adversely affects economic development is the outcome of the incongruity between protectionism and policies aimed at resources utilization. JEl Classification: H21, H62, H68, H83, P35
Title: Economic Evaluation of Kinnow Cultivation under Different Irrigation Systems in Rajasthan
Abstract :

The present study was conducted in Sri-Ganganagar and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan. Kinnow cultivation under different irrigation system viz.; solar, diesel and electric irrigation system was found to be popular in the state. Therefore, study on economic evaluation of kinnow cultivation under different irrigation system in Rajasthan has been conducted to evaluate kinnow orchard orchards under different irrigation system. Total 240 respondents were selected for the study. Standard techniques like NPV, BC ratio, IRR, Break-Even point and Payback period were employed. The investment in kinnow orchard has been seen as profitable business. In the study area, the net present value was work out to be ` 842521 per ha under solar irrigation system ` 798964 per ha electric irrigation system and ` 762808 per ha under diesel irrigation system. Internal rate of return was found to be 38 per cent, 37 per cent and 35 per cent under solar irrigation, electric irrigation and diesel irrigation system. Benefit-Cost Ratio was at 2.36, 2.23 and 2.08 under solar, electric and diesel irrigation system. Break–Even point was 5.82 ton, 4.79 ton and 6 ton under solar, diesel and electric irrigation system. Payback period estimated to be 7.1 years, 7.2 years and 7.3 year under solar, electric and diesel irrigation system. Hence, the kinnow orchard with solar irrigation system has been found to be very economic feasible and it should be realized to the farming community for attraction towards use of renewable energy in fruits production in the state.

Title: Public Indebtedness in Punjab State of India: A Critical Review
Abstract :

A neoteric phenomena which has put the Indian economy under unbearable pressure is ballooning borrowings because of unceasing expenditure by the governments. In India, rising debt to GDP ratio has accentuated the problem of outpacing revenue expenditure which led to the implementation of FRBM Act, 2003 and after that indebtedness among states has declined. So, this paper focuses on the analysis of public indebtedness of non special category states of India and to access the level of indebtedness, debt to GDP ratio is taken. The state that has emerged as one of the weakest in tackling with the situation of growing indebtedness is Punjab over the period of 2000-2017 along with West Bengal because of rise in revenue expenditure especially the non-development component, stagnant growth in state’s own tax revenue and sliding non-tax revenues. States like Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar have low Debt to GSDP ratio and are spending more on developmental activities whereas the Punjab state is spending very less amount on developmental activities and more interest payments which can lead to the further deteriorate the financial health of the state.

Title: Armed Forces and Disaster Management in India
Abstract :

Currently, involvements of armed forces to aid civil authority in various events are continuously rising. Given their professional training and spirit to deliver and assist the communities, the armed forces always become the first choice of any state civil authorities in the event of disasters. The role of the armed forces in disaster management is globally well recognized. Their ability to work under adverse ground and climatic conditions is an unusual attribute to help to civil authority during disasters. Government, civil society and all other stakeholders have incredible faith and believe that all types of disaster can be efficiently handled by the armed forces. The Indian armed forces are one of the most dedicated professional and modernized armed forces in the world. They are always in a state of operational readiness to move quickly to any disaster affected area. Besides, NDRF also played an important role in rescue and relief operation in all major disasters in the country; in fact their service during the disasters reduces the pressure on the armed forces. The armed force will continue to play a vital role in disaster response as they are the core of the government’s response capacity in major disaster situations.

Title: Generalized Mathematical Expressions for Various Repayment Plans and Long Term Cost Comparison
Abstract :

The financial systems of the day demand greater speed and accuracy which has been provided by digitalization delivered though computers. However, iterative programmes are no better than generalized formulae in saving time and money. This necessitates efforts in finding generalized mathematical formulae. This paper attempts to derive mathematical expression for various repayment plans in general. The generalized expressions derived have been further made use in comparing the cost effectiveness of repayment plans in long run. The straight end repayment plan remains the costliest plan with partial repayment plan being less costly regardless of interest rate and repayment term involved. The cost effectiveness of other plans depends on rate of interest and term of repayment.

Title: Problem Analysis of the Contract Farmers and the Contracting Firm under Contract Farming of Bottle Gourd
Abstract :

The present investigation was undertaken with a view to study the problems faced by the contract farmers and the contracting firm under contract farming of bottle gourd in the Jaipur district of Rajasthan. The contracting firm Rajasthan olive cultivation limited was selected, as it was only contracting firm in the Bassi tehsil which was engaged in the contract farming related to cucurbits and other vegetables. A list of 26 villages having contract farming in bottle gourd was obtained from the tehsil headquarter. From that list three villages were selected randomly. From these villages, 30 contract farmers were selected randomly and 20 non-contract farmers resembling to the contract farmers except contract component were also selected to make a comparative study of the contract farming vis-à-vis non-contract farming. Primary data were collected for the agricultural year 2015-16. The conventional budgeting technique and multiple regression functions were used to analyze the data. In the production of bottle gourd, contract farmers and contracting firms face many problems like transfer of technology, supply of quality seed, arrangements of institutional credit, fertilizers and other inputs, market arrangements, timely payments, violation of terms and conditions, lack of proper management by the company, frequent price fluctuations in markets, lack of transport facilities during peak periods, etc. For solving such problems it is necessary to first identify the problems and reasons thereof so that corrective measures may be resorted to tackle them. However this study was conducted on simulation conditions that involves the construction of the artificial environment (under control conditions) within which relevant information and data can be generated like in green house, poly house and shade net house for the future scholars.

Title: Livelihood Diversification Scenario in Hill State, Meghalaya: Impact and Determinants
Abstract :

Livelihood diversification is a norm in every economy, particularly in rural India, where farming alone rarely provides sufficient income. The study was conducted at Mawpran village in the hilly terrain, Meghalaya, India in the year 2017, with the objective to analyze the extent of livelihoods diversification among rural farm families, the impact of livelihood diversification and its determinants. Ninety respondents were selected by simple random sampling. The study found that majority of the farmers diversified from on-farm traditional crops to on-farm high-value crops (strawberry) while a majority of landless respondents had to do diversifying livelihood activities. Using the Wilcoxon sign rank test, it was observed that diversification had a significant impact on material possession and income level of the respondents. Diversification index was measured with the help of Simpson Diversification Index (SDI) and it conferred that fifty percent of the respondents belong to the high level of diversification (more than 0.43) and the average diversification index of the respondents was 0.32 which implied that the majority of the respondents had diversifying livelihood activities. Variables like education and cosmo-politeness were found to be significantly related to their degree of livelihood. Thus, diversification of livelihood is an important feature of rural survival and improving income level.

Title: A Geographical Study of the Ground Realities of Rural Safety Net in India: A village level study of MGNREGS
Abstract :

Rural safety nets are indispensable ingredients of boosting economy of a developing country like India. Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) is one of the most discussed safety net of the vast Indian subcontinent. NREGA act was passed by Union Government in 2005 which was later renamed as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) in year 2009. This Act results for the initiation of MGNREGS which came into existence on February 2, 2006. It was implemented in a phase wise manner. At first stage, 200 most backward districts of the country were covered, phase II included 130 additional districts and the final phase covered the remaining rural districts of the country. The spread and provisions of MGNREGS has made the scheme a pillar of Indian rural development. This is the landmark scheme of Indian Government which provides employment to the job seekers with a right based approach. Though the initial aim of this scheme was to provide employment to the unemployed rural youth, a strategy of sustainable livelihood is hidden under the policy. Much highlight has been given to the employment generation aspect of the scheme, as this was the prime focus of the Act. Financial year 2015-2016 accounts for the generation of 286497320 employment days in West Bengal in total with 9157780 MGNREGS workers. The aspect of generation of common property resources through MGNREGS is not much discussed and evaluated by the researchers. The quality and sustainability of rural Common Property Resources (CPRs) is significant for generating sustainable rural livelihood. This paper provides an attempt to see the realities of MGNREGS generated CPRs on an empirical basis. The gap of theoretical overview and real implementation is evaluated in this paper with empirical observation.